Research Information System
International Online Journal of Education and Teaching, vol.13, no.2, pp.188-206, 2026 (Scopus)
This study classified students according to non-cognitive variables and PISA 2022 mathematics literacy scores. Using a survey design, data from 221.031 students across 31 countries were analyzed through two-step cluster analysis, which yielded six distinct clusters. Cluster 1 demonstrated the highest mathematics literacy scores but relatively low levels of perseverance, curiosity, cooperation, and empathy. Cluster 2 was characterized by a strong sense of belonging, emotional control, and resilience to stress. Cluster 3 exhibited the lowest sense of belonging and the highest levels of bullying. Cluster 5 reflected high levels of cooperation, empathy, and assertiveness, whereas Cluster 6 was marked by strong perseverance and curiosity despite having the lowest mathematics literacy scores. Cross-country comparisons revealed several notable patterns. Effort and persistence were lowest in Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong, and Macao. Sense of belonging, cooperation, and empathy were strongest in Switzerland, Germany, and Spain, but weakest in Türkiye and Hong Kong. Curiosity was particularly high in Türkiye and Portugal, while stress resistance and emotional control were most evident in Finland and Denmark. Additional variations across countries were also identified.